by Katrina Rbeiz, Vanderbilt University
After conducting multiple clinical assessments and taking psychological surveys online, I kept coming across the same issue of ethnicity and race being treated as the same measure of identity. ‘Ethnicity’ boxes would sometimes only include racial categories, and ‘race’ boxes would dismiss a few identities altogether, relegating any missed categories as ‘other.’ In some of the worst cases, I’ve noticed the distinguishing of racial groups as ‘white’ vs. ‘non-white,’ deeming ‘white’ groups to be the majority, and lumping the rest of the participants into a monolithic mess.
First and foremost, it is important for the clinical psychology community to be consistent in their conceptualization, theoretical frameworks, and definitions of ethnic and racial identities. Broadly, ethnic identity refers to the sense of belonging one might have due to a common nationality, a shared tradition, or a set of cultural traits that can include shared languages, music, foods, or beliefs (Afkhami, 2012). On the other hand, racial identity is characterized more so by shared physical characteristics, like skin color, facial features, or hereditary traits (Cokley, 2007).
Cokley, in his paper on the critical issues of measurement of ethnic and racial identity (2007), notes the importance of separating ethnic identity from racial identity, as each category serves different purposes. In studies that evaluate individuals’ cultural beliefs, values and behaviors, ethnic identity should be ascertained, whereas if researchers are interested in examining the ways in which identities are formed in a racialized society, racial identity should be measured. Inconsistent and interchangeable use of these identity groups can create confusion in research studies, oftentimes erasing people’s identities that they most associate with. This can have harmful repercussions to research results, especially if those results are used to define and characterize entire groups of people.
Once ethnic and racial identity are clearly defined in the context of the study, researchers can proceed to select an adequate instrument that can assess the racial-ethnic identities of the participants. Oftentimes, studies rely on unidimensional or one-question assessments to assess race and ethnicity; however, this could potentially lead to complications as to why certain identity groups were included/excluded from the study. Racial-ethnic identity is also incredibly complex to categorize, as it is an amalgamation of one’s beliefs, cultural practices, socialization, and individual differences. When these sample characteristics are boiled down to the minimum, racial and ethnic identity become an afterthought of the study, when in reality, multicultural practices should be integrated into research, especially when the results are being used to make sweeping generalizations to entire populations.
Once assessments are chosen, a rationale should be provided as to why these specific tools were used in comparison to others in the field. This helps boost the reliability and generalizability of racial-ethnic identity measures. Assigning, collecting, and quantifying the data should be more transparent in order to better understand the efforts of psychologists and researchers to diversify their samples to avoid biases.
There exists a clear distinction in the approaches used to identify and manage psychological distress among racially and ethnically diverse populations. To begin, racism is defined as a system of institutional and individual prejudice directed against racial group(s) and their members, where power is maintained by the oppressor to institute discriminatory policies and actions (Neville, 2009). In the racial identity literature, researchers have developed several models for racial discrimination, racial stress, and race-based traumatic stress that specifically address structural and interpersonal forms of racism that may threaten someone’s physiological, emotional, and psychological wellbeing (e.g. Carter, 2007; Jackson et al., 1996; Kubany et al., 2000; Clark et al., 1999; Slavin et al., 1991). These approaches differ in ethnically diverse individuals and immigrants, as researchers focus on acculturative stress to explain the cumulative stress/trauma associated with the clashing of values, practices, and languages (Bhattacharya & Schoppelrey, 2004; Gil et al., 1994; Berry, 1974; Torres, 2010). Acculturation refers to the assimilation of the dominant culture, which can lead to psychological, physical, and emotional distress in marginalized groups who are often told to adapt their religious, linguistic, and cultural practices in order to avoid harassment (Berry, 1974). It is important to note that we do not exist in a vacuum, and that our racial and ethnic backgrounds compound to form one social identity; however, this does not take away from the importance of noting the distinctions between the two constructs in order to better develop interventions for negative experiences that distinctly surround racism vs. ethnic/cultural discrimination.
One final way that researchers can ensure that racial and ethnic identities are properly accounted for is by paying attention to the differences in ethnic identities across broader racial groups. For example, if a participant identifies as “White,” it is worth noting the discrepancies across people who may identify as “Middle Eastern,” “European,” or “Northern African.” All in all, it is imperative that researchers strive to provide options for people to adequately identify with their racial and ethnic group of choice. ______________________________________________________________________________
References
Afkhami, R. (2012). Ethnicity: Introductory User Guide. Economic and Social Data Service.
Berry, J. W., & Annis, R. C. (1974). Acculturative Stress: The Role of Ecology, Culture and Differentiation. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 5(4), 382–406. https://doi.org/10.1177/002202217400500402
Bhattacharya, G., & Schoppelrey, S. L. (2004). Pre-immigration beliefs of life success, post-immigration experiences, and acculturative stress: South Asian immigrants in the U.S. Journal of Immigrant Health, 6, 83–92.
Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and Psychological and Emotional Injury: Recognizing and Assessing Race-Based Traumatic Stress. The Counseling Psychologist, 35(1), 13–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006292033
Clark, R., Anderson, N., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805-816.
Cokley, K. (2007). Critical issues in the measurement of ethnic and racial identity: A referendum on the state of the field. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 224-234. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.224
Gil, A., Vega, W. A., & Dimas, J. A. (1994). Acculturative stress and personal adjustment among Hispanic adolescent boys. Journal of Community Psychology, 22, 43–54.
Helms, J. E., & Cook, D. A. (1999). Using race and culture in counseling and psychotherapy: Theory and process. Allyn & Bacon.
Helms, J. E. (2007). Some better practices for measuring racial and ethnic identity constructs. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 235–246. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.235
Jackson, J. S., Brown, T. N., Williams, D. R., Torres, M., Sellers, S. L., & Brown, K. (1996). Racism and the physical and mental health status of African Americans: A thirteen year national panel study. Ethnicity and Disease, 6(1-2), 132-147.
Kubany, E. S., Leisen, M. B., Kaplan, A., & Kelly, M. (2000). Validation of a brief measure of post traumatic stress disorder: The Distressing Event Questionnaire (DSQ). Psychological Assessment, 12, 197-209
Neville, H. A., & Pieterse, A. L. (2009). Racism, White supremacy, and resistance:
Contextualizing Black American experiences. In H. A. Neville, B. M. Tynes, & S. O. Utsey (Eds.), Handbook of African American Psychology (pp. 159-172). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.
Phinney, J. S. (1996). Understanding Ethnic Diversity: The Role of Ethnic Identity. American Behavioral Scientist, 40(2), 143–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764296040002005
Ponterotto, J. G., & Park-Taylor, J. (2007). Racial and ethnic identity theory, measurement, and research in counseling psychology: Present status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 282–294. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.282
Slavin, L. A., Rainer, K. L., McCreary, M. L., & Gowda, K. K. (1991). Toward a multicultural model of the stress process. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 156-163.
Torres, L. (2010). Predicting levels of Latino depression: Acculturation, acculturative stress, and coping. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(2), 256–263. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017357
Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this newsletter are those of the authors alone and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System (PCSAS).