By Bingjie Tong, M.A.1, Madeline Palermo, M.A.1, Leslie E. Sawyer, M.A.1, & Fallon Goodman, Ph.D.2.
1 University of South Florida; 2 George Washington University
The “leaky pipeline” phenomenon has existed for decades in academia. Students from marginalized backgrounds, especially those from racial/ethnic minorities and lower socioeconomic backgrounds, are more likely to drop out at each stage of the educational process compared to those from majority backgrounds (Barr et al., 2008). One downstream consequence of this “leaky pipeline” is homogenous academic and professional fields dominated by people of majority groups. As of 2020, 84.47% of active psychologists in the US identified as White, compared to 4.24% who identified as Black, 3.22% Asian, and 6.18% as non-white Hispanic (Demographics of U.S. Psychology Workforce, 2022). In this article, we discuss two common barriers that marginalized students face when pursuing graduate school training in psychology.
Financial Insecurity
As the COVID-19 pandemic pushed graduate programs to offer fully online application processes, financial barriers to obtaining admission were spotlighted, including application fees (~ $50 per program) and travel/lodging expenses for interviews. Though the online process mitigated travel/lodging expenses, students still face substantial financial barriers well before applying. These barriers disproportionately impact racial/ethnic minority students and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. As acceptance to psychology graduate programs becomes increasingly competitive, applicants are encouraged to accumulate a breadth and depth of research experience (Prinstein, 2021). The most common way to attain these experiences is by becoming a research assistant (RA). However, most of these RA positions are unpaid or underpaid, such that a student must be in a privileged financial situation to devote several hours per week to voluntary work. Students without this financial capital will find it difficult, if not impossible, to gain this requisite research experience. Moreover, students with lower socioeconomic status are less likely to have access to reliable transportation, may be working part-time or full-time while taking classes, and may be responsible for other obligations (e.g., childcare, other homecare duties) which, in turn, makes it even less likely for them to be able to devote substantial time to RA positions. Moreover, obtaining fewer research experiences might negatively impact these individuals from receiving strong letters of recommendation, thus making them appear to be less competitive applicants to graduate program admissions committees and potential graduate mentors.
These financial barriers reflect systemic issues that require solutions at the structural, institutional, and societal levels. Nevertheless, doctoral programs can independently take steps to reduce the financial burden faced by many minority applicants prior to applying and during the application process. Below we offer potential solutions that departments can undertake.
To reduce the financial burden of the application process, graduate schools should have clear, easy-to-follow policies on need-based application fee waivers and offer them for all students who qualify. Although many departments may resist lost income, it is worth considering eliminating application fees altogether. Modern application software may offer sophisticated screening that reduces or eliminates the need for staff to manually pre-screen applications, thus resulting in little to no labor costs associated with the application review process. Consequently, the only manual screening would occur by that of PIs who are recruiting new members to join their teams, and this is a no-cost function such faculty already fulfill.
Once students receive an interview, virtual interviews can eliminate the high travel costs of in-person interviews. For programs that opt to hold in-person interviews, funds for travel reimbursement could be allocated based on financial need. Strategic fundraising initiatives (e.g., alumni campaigns, annual fundraising events, community outreach) may be required to provide this financial support. These efforts can be integrated into existing efforts; many psychology departments hold annual research exhibitions to highlight undergraduate students’ research work (e.g., PsychExpo), which can be used to connect with alumni, engage community members, and raise funds.
Recognizing the realistic budgetary constraints of many departments and universities, solving the problem of unfunded research assistantships is a bigger challenge. External research funding is highly competitive with tight budgets. When possible, PIs can prioritize funding RAs, through part-time positions that may cost less and fund more students. Departments should identify and promote college and university initiatives that sponsor paid research work (e.g., work-study programs) or offer research course credit; faculty members should be encouraged and incentivized to offer these opportunities.
Lack of Social Capital
A large proportion of racial/ethnic minority and low SES students are also first-generation college students (Pitre & Pitre, 2009; Schuyler et al., 2019). These individuals may have less access to the “unwritten goals” of higher education. In one qualitative study, first-generation students expressed that they were often “in the dark”, whereas their peers were more aware of norms and expectations (Gardner & Holley, 2011). For example, an unconventionally formatted CV might be perceived as unprofessional or lacking in quality but may reflect less about an applicant’s skills, abilities, and potential and more a function of limited social capital (e.g., lack of access to templates, unfamiliarity with academic jargon).
A lack of social resources, commonly manifested as a lack of mentorship in higher education systems, is another challenge faced by many racial/ethnic minority and low SES students. The burden of change should not be placed solely on underrepresented individuals. Mentorship programs for racial/ethnic minorities and low SES on a departmental, college, or university level can offer strategic advice on selecting and applying to graduate programs. The Psychology Research Opportunities Programs (PROPS) at UCLA, for example, are designed specifically for underrepresented students on campus (e.g., first-generation students and racial/ethnic minorities). The program provides students with faculty mentors, research opportunities, career development, and a stipend for two quarters. They also offer training and mentorship programs throughout the year, including faculty-led workshops on the academic journey, interviews with professors, and statistical workshops. Universities may consider offering a program modeled off PROPS.
The two barriers discussed are by no means exhaustive, as there are surely innumerable circuitous pathways wrought with obstacles for racial/ethnic minority and low SES students seeking entry into the field or professionals working toward career advancement. The barriers discussed could arise at any time along the trajectory from student all the way up the career path. Furthermore, these barriers are not unique to the field of psychology per se. However, we think that these barriers warrant attention because the field of psychology likely is uniquely situated to create early intervention strategies to mitigate the lasting impacts of these barriers, which, in turn, could facilitate the promotion of diversity within the field while simultaneously advancing equity, inclusion, and access.
____________________________________________________________________________
References
American Psychological Association. (2022). Demographics of U.S. Psychology Workforce [Interactive data tool]. Retrieved September 20th 2022, from https://www.apa.org/workforce/data-tools/demographics
Barr, D. A., Gonzalez, M. E., & Wanat, S. F. (2008). The leaky pipeline: Factors associated with early decline in interest in premedical studies among underrepresented minority undergraduate students. Academic Medicine, 83(5), 503-511. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e31816bda16
Gardner, S. K., & Holley, K. A. (2011). “Those invisible barriers are real”: The progression of first-generation students through doctoral education. Equity & Excellence in Education, 44(1), 77-92. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2011.529791
Lin, L., Stamm, K., Christidis, P. (2018). How diverse is the psychology workforce? American Psychological Association https://www.apa.org/monitor/2018/02/datapoint
Prinstein, M. J. (2021). Mitch’s Uncensored Advice for Applying to Graduate School in Clinical Psychology https://mitch.web.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/4922/2017/02/MitchGradSchoolAdvice.pdf
Pitre, C., & Pitre, P. (2009). Increasing underrepresented high school students’ college transitions and achievements. NASSP Bulletin, 93(2), 96–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192636509340691
Schuyler, S. W., Childs, J. R., & Poynton, T. A. (2021). Promoting Success for First-Generation Students of Color: The Importance of Academic, Transitional Adjustment, and Mental Health Supports. Journal of College Access, 6(1), 12-25.
Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this newsletter are those of the authors alone and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System (PCSAS).