by Rddhi Moodliar, University of California, Los Angeles
In psychological research, associations between demographic variables and outcome variables are often assessed. Some common demographic variables include age, gender identity, race, and ethnicity. If statistically significant, these variables are often identified as risk factors for the outcome variable. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration defines risk factors as “characteristics at the biological, psychological, family, community, or cultural level that precede and are associated with a higher likelihood of negative outcomes.” (SAMHSA, 2019). Decades of research has further categorized risk factors as either modifiable or non-modifiable.
Today, it is widely known and accepted that race is a social construct. As is explained in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ 2001 document Mental Health: Culture, Race, and Ethnicity—A Supplement to Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General, race has a social meaning in that “different cultures classify people into racial groups according to a set of characteristics that are socially significant.” So, what are we trying to convey when we identify race as a risk factor? Race as a risk factor could refer to multiple associated components. For instance, it may refer to the cultural values and norms associated with a racial or ethnic group, the racism (systemic, interpersonal, or otherwise) that is faced by non-White communities, and/or other specific elements related to the construct. In this article, we focus on the impact of racism on psychosocial outcomes and highlight the importance of calling out racism in psychological research.
When conducting research on homelessness, for instance, one would be remiss to avoid discussing the role of racism when pertinent. At the root of the disproportionate impact of homelessness on minority groups, particularly within Black and Indigenous communities (National Alliance to End Homelessness, 2020; Olivet, et al., 2018), is systemic racism. For example, it is well documented that Black and African-American individuals have significantly lower rates of upward income mobility and increased rates of downward income mobility as compared to their White counterparts (Chetty, et al., 2020). This contributes to the racial economic inequality that has persisted for generations. Coupled with gentrification and the rising cost of housing, Black and African-American individuals are more likely to be forced out of their homes than White individuals. The cycle of homelessness is further perpetuated by anti-homeless laws and enforcement such as move-along orders, citations, etc. (Herring, et al., 2019). This connection to the criminal justice system, which has been shown to disproportionately impact Black and African-American communities (Hetey, et al., 2016; Hinton, et al., 2018; Nellis, 2016), can make it much more difficult to escape the cycle of homelessness. While the above breakdown of how systemic racism increases the risk of experiencing homelessness is just one example, it can be applied to many other areas within psychology research.
Stating that race is a risk factor and not specifying the influence of racism, when applicable, can be detrimental to psychology’s aim of improving mental wellbeing for all. It is, in essence, blaming the victim for a nonmodifiable characteristic instead of taking into account the variety of systemic factors influencing the situation. It is imperative that we, as a scientific community, ensure that we are calling out racism in our research when relevant. From criminal justice and social services to healthcare and education, we can more effectively spur change within many levels of the system if we name the underlying modifiable risk factor for what it is: racism.
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References
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Jones, M. R., & Porter, S. R. (2020). Race and economic opportunity in
the United States: An intergenerational perspective. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 135(2), 711-783. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjz042
Herring, C., Yarbrough, D., & Marie Alatorre, L. (2020). Pervasive penality: How the
criminalization of poverty perpetuates homelessness. Social Problems, 67(1), 131-149. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spz004
Hetey, R. C., Monin, B., Maitreyi, A., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2016). Data for change: A statistical
analysis of police stops, searches, handcuffings, and arrests in Oakland, Calif., 2013-2014. Stanford SPARQ. Retrieved from https://stan ford.app.box.com/v/Data-for-Change
Hinton, E., Henderson, L., & Reed, C. (2018, May). An unjust burden: The disparate treatment
of black Americans in the criminal justice system. Vera Institute of Justice. https://www.vera.org/downloads/publications/for-the-record-unjust-burden-racial-disparities.pdf
National Alliance to End Homelessness. (2020, January). Racial Inequality. https://endhomelessness.org/homelessness-in-america/what-causes- homelessness/inequality/
Nellis, A. (2016). The color of justice: Racial and ethnic disparity in state prisons. The
Sentencing Project. https://www.sentencingproject.org/wp-content/ uploads/2016/06/The-Color-of-Justice-Racial-and-EthnicDisparity-in-State-Prisons.pdf
Office of the Surgeon General (US), Center for Mental Health Services (US), National Institute
of Mental Health (US). Substance Abuse, & Mental Health Services Administration. (2001). Mental health: Culture, race, and ethnicity: A supplement to mental health: A report of the Surgeon General (Vol. 2). Department of Health and Human Services, US Public Health Service.
Olivet, J., Dones, M., & Richard, M. (2019). The intersection of homelessness, racism, and
mental illness. Racism and psychiatry (pp. 55-69). Humana Press, Cham.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2019). Risk and Protective
Factors. https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/20190718-samhsa-risk-protective-factors.pdf
Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this newsletter are those of the authors alone and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System (PCSAS).